UNESCO's ethical, political and scientific challenges of today also include the goal to reduce the vulnerability to natural disasters in fragile environments such as coastal zones, islands, mountainous areas or cities.
UNESCO has been engaged since 1960 in the assessment and mitigation of risks arising from natural hazards of geological origin (earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and landslides), and contributes to the study of hazards of hydrometeorological origin (storms, floods, droughts, desertification, avalanches and wildfires). Studies of natural hazards are carried out within the programmes of: (i) the Division of Earth Sciences, including the International Geological Correlation Programme (IGCP); (ii) the Division of Water Sciences, including the International Hydrological Programme (IHP); (iii) the Division of Ecological Sciences and its Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB); and (iv) the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC).
UNESCO's initial aims were essentially to help provide scientific knowledge dealing with the earth, its geosphere and biosphere, water and oceans, and their interactions, as well as on the engineering means to reduce vulnerability to attack by both man and nature.
The health of the Earth's ecosystems is generally in decline, owing to a variety of human-induced stresses(Vitousek et al, 1997). Physical restructuring is one of the major stresses, encompassing a range of activities including transportation and utility corridors, construction and operation of dams and diversions,dredging of channels, mining, and the like (Rapport, Costanza & McMichael, 1998). Often the impacts on ecological functions are indirect: loss or alteration of habitat leads to diminished bio-diversity; lack of natural fluctuations in water levels leads to elimination of biotic communities that depend on ephemeral habitats; disturbance of acidic soils leads to acidification of receiving waters. Preservation and restoration of ecosystem health requires detailed knowledge of the geological aspects of the landscape inorder to achieve societal goals with minimal damage to ecosystem function. A study of the Kyronjoki River and its estuary (NW coast of Finland, on the Gulf of Bothnia) illustrates the relevance of earth sciences in finding solutions to environmental problems that do not compromise ecosystem health (Hilden & Rapport, 1993). Detailed geoscience based knowledge of the properties of the soils, drainage, etc, is needed in setting realistic expectations on what can be achieved by watershed restoration activities. Knowledge of soil properties is also necessary for avoiding further damages to the aquatic system when developing the use of the watershed.
Vitousek, PM et al, Science, 277, 494-499, (1997).
Rapport, DJ, Costanza, R & McMichael, AJ, Trends in Research in Ecology and Evolution, 13, 397-402, (1998).
Hilden, M & Rapport, DJ, J. Aquatic Ecosystem Health, 2, 261-275, (1993).
Geochemical mapping is carried out by geological surveys and other earth science institutions in most countries. Since World War II such mapping has been used as an important tool in exploration for mineral deposits. There is, however, a growing interest for the application of geochemical maps in other fields, among them epidemiology. It has long been realized that the natural environment may in some places be suboptimal for the health of human beings and animals. Endemic diseases such as fluorosis, caries and goiter are classical examples of human disorders caused by excess (F) or deficiencies (F and I, respectively) of chemical elements in the environment. Covariations for occurrences of Keshan and Kaschin-Beck diseases versus low natural levels of Se in China are more recently recognised geomedical associations of the same type. In several countries nation-wide geochemical maps have been produced for many elements. These maps, which show that broad, contrasty geochemical distribution patterns exist at all scales from regional to continental, open up a whole new world of information for geomedical research. The authors comparisons of such large scale geochemical data with epidemiological registrations for endemic diseases have disclosed associations that may give rise to new etiological hypotheses. Examples of such associations are: malignant melanoma of skin versus calcium (inverse) and multiple sclerosis versus radon (direct) in Norway, as well as nasopharyngeal carcinoma versus magnesium (inverse) and thorium (direct) in China. The paper will document these associations on maps and by application of a newly introduced statistical method for spatially moving correlation analysis. Possible geomedical mechanisms that link diseases to the natural environment will be discussed. Knowledge of such natural links is a prerequisite to understand the health effects of anthropogenic pollution.
With the progressive phasing out of leaded petrol, additional lead sources can be identified in urban atmospheres. These secondary lead sources, unlikely from automotive emissions, are usually punctual and their impact at a monitoring site will be more strongly affected by meteorological parameters than a diffuse source like petrol. In this study we have attempted to identify lead sources in the atmosphere of Geneva (Switzerland), and to assess their relation with meteorology, seasonality and other pollutants like particulate matter and SO2. A city center and a rural site station, situated about 11 km SW of Geneva, have been monitored during one year (October 1996-September 1997). Data collected at the stations comprised meteorological parameters (temperature, wind speed and direction, relative humidity), particulate matter and SO2 concentrations. We have analysed the daily air filters in fortnight batches for lead isotope compositions (TIMS) and lead concentrations (ICP-MS) and studied selected filters by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Lead isotope compositions of aerosols show the existence of two main lead sources, petrol and waste incineration (a waste incinerator is situated 9 km SW of the city in direction of the country station). A third, subordinate source is represented by coal burning and is detectable in winter at the city station. Lead contributions from the three sources have been apportioned using isotopic mixing equations. Petrol is the main source of lead in the city (60% in winter, 80-90% in summer), while the incinerator is the main source at the rural site (circ. 60% through the year). Incinerator lead contribution at the city station decreases linearly with wind speed, both in winter and in summer (winter range: 10-60%; summer range: 10-20%). We interpret this as the result of a higher differential dilution of incinerator-derived aerosols with respect to petrol due their transport to the city from a greater distance than automotive emissions. During winter, incinerator contributions to the city display greater variations than in summer, suggesting a seasonal meteorological regime which enhances the wind speed control on incinerator aerosol dilution. We attribute this meteorological regime to the lower mixing height typical of the cold season. Incinerator contributions at the country station vary mainly according to wind direction, reflecting the closeness of the source to the monitoring site. Isotope-based apportionments of lead sources and their comparison with concentrations of particulate matter and sulfur dioxide have also allowed to assess the impact of traffic emissions and waste incineration on PM and SO2 levels at the two stations. A multiparameter approach (e.g. lead isotopes, meteorology, concentration of pollutants, particle morphology and composition) is a powerful tool to better constrain sources of pollution and their temporal and spatial variability in urban atmospheres.
Records of atmospheric metal pollution dating back to ancient times have been preserved in various types of natural deposits, especially polar ice caps, ombrogenic (nutrients derived exclusively from the atmosphere) bogs and aquatic sediments. Because of the rapid rates of accumulation, ice deposits often provide the most detailed paleo pollution records including short-term fluctuations. Their use in retrospective geochemical monitoring tends to be tempered by the thick pile of firn that must be drilled or excavated to reach pre-industrial layers and by the very low concentrations of trace metals (often <10-9 g/g) which necessitate meticulous procedures in the collection and analysis of samples. Peatbogs and aquatic sediments are deposited at much slower rates and hence provide compact records which can further be distorted by basin characteristics and post-depositional behavior of metals. In spite of differences in the accumulation efficiency and nature of the archives, the various deposits have yielded a coherent picture of long-term contamination of the atmosphere with heavy metals. In their pioneering work, Murozumi et al. (1969) used the profiles of lead levels in ice layers from northwest Greenland to deduce that extensive contamination of Arctic atmosphere with lead began before the Industrial Revolution. Subsequent studies found that the lead contents of ice layers deposited in Greenland between 500 B.C. and 300 A.D. were about 4-fold above background, implying widespread pollution of Northern Hemisphere by emissions from Roman mines and smelters. Our report will present an overview of recent studies in various parts of the world that have dated environmental pollution with toxic metals (especially Pb,Cd, Cu, Zn and Hg) at regional and global scales to ancient times. The paleo-pollution studies are useful in interpreting recent records ofclimatic changes, and more importantly, can be linked to changes intechnological development. This emerging field (of paleo-pollution studies) provides an exciting framework for interfacing industrial archeology, global climate change and geochemistry.
Murozumi, M, Chow, TJ, and Patterson, CC, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 33, 1247-1294, (1969).
At present there are hundreds of pesticide approved for use globally. For example about 450 active ingredients are approved for use in the U.K. alone. At the present time organophosphates (OPs) are the most widely used pesticides in the world. Recent estimates suggest that pesticides account for more than 20,000 fatalities yearly, and that most of these will have occurred in developing countries. The effects of these pesticides is, however, not only fatal. Organophosphate (OP) pesticides are neurotoxins which act on the nervous systems of pests by inhibiting the breakdown of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, a key substance involved with transmission of nerve impulses; this leads to death and a multitude of human illnesses . This presentation will focus primarily on organophosphate pesticide (OPs) behaviour in the environment and their toxicity because of recent suggestions that OPs may play a role in the development of BSE and human diseases such as CJD, Gulf War Syndrome, farmers flu, multiple chemical sensitivity, immune dysfunction, cancerous lymphomas, induced hypothermia, polyneuropathy, birth defects, mental retardation, chronic neurological sequelae, systemic illness, sleep disturbance, skin disease, and eye injury. Once OPs are in the environment their breakdown is considered to be "fast" (on the order of days) and therefore they are termed "safe". The primary physicochemical processes which retard and break down OPs are adsorption, biodegradation and hydrolysis. However, the breakdown of OPs is very much dependent on the environmental conditions. If the soil is clay or organic rich, the OPs adsorb to the surface of soil particles which retards their transport. This adsorption, however, also inhibits the biodegradation of the chemicals so that OPs can persist in soil environments for 10ths of years. Once the OPs reach the groundwater or surface waters, their solubility is relatively high (up to 100s of thousands of ppm), compared to drinking water limits of 0.1 ppb. In water the primary transformation process is hydrolysis, which is pH and temperature dependent. For example quoted half lives for OPs are those for laboratory conditions (pH 7, 25°C). But under typical N-European groundwaters the pH often is 6 and the temperature as low as 5°C. Under those conditions the half life which is quoted as 10 days in the literature is prolonged to one year. Finally, while drinking water limits are 0.1 ppb, the maximum acceptable concentrations in fruit and vegetables are around 10 ppm. Therefore, the population of Europe consumes over 90% of their pesticide intake via food. Bearing in mind the severe illnesses discussed above, is it not time to reconsider the use of these toxic substances on our food crops; are we poisoning our children when we present them with a balanced meal?
Soils of the earth are a collection of natural bodies composed of mineral and organic matter capable of supporting plant growth. They are the foundation of terrestrial ecosystems, serving as a major site of decomposition of organic matter and the return of mineral elements to the nutrient cycle. From an ecosystem perspective, one can see that soils also play a central role in maintenance of human health and genesis of disease.
In the realm of infectious disease, human exposure to the soil through gastrointestinal, respiratory or dermal routes may lead to directly to such bacterial conditions as melioidosis, atypical mycobacterial pneumonia, fungal condtions such as histoplasmosis, blastomycosis, and protozoal conditions such as cyclosporiasis. By providing the environment for part of a complex life cycle, the soil may lead indirectly to infestations with pathogenic nematode worms. An example of the latter will be provided from Haiti where deforestation has led to subsequent periodic flooding and silting of several rivers. The deposition of sandy loam topsoil and increased soil moisture have created conditions conducive to a re-emergence of human hookworm infestation (Lilley, 1997).
In the realm of non-infectious disease, human exposure may again be direct or, through products derived from the soil, indirect. Heavy metals such as lead, mercury and cadmium, and organic compounds such as nitrates when present in soils in sufficient concentrations as a result of human activity, lead to distinct clinical disease entities. Respiratory disease has been induced by exposure to inhaled dusts of airborne soil constituents. An example will be drawn from western Canada where water diversion for irrigation and drought in the late 1980s led to the drying of Old Wives Lake, the fourth largest alkaline lake in North America. The human population downwind from the dry lake bed was exposed each summer to airborne dusts comprised of a mixture of clay, silt and sodium sulfate. Survey assessment in 1989 demonstrated that they experienced a significantly higher prevalence of chronic cough, wheeze, eye and nasal irritation than did a neighboring population that was unexposed to the dusts (Gomez, 1992).
Given the central role of the soil in the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems and its linkages with human health, greater attention needs to be paid to this dimension of ecosystem health.
Lilley B, Lammie P, Dickerson J, Eberhard M, Emerg Infect Dis, 3, 391-393, (1997).
Gomez SR, Parker RA, Dosman JA, McDuffie HH, Archives of Environmental Health, 47, 364-369, (1992).
Itai-itai Disease made its first appearance in and around the Jinzu River Basin in 1910. Since zinc and lead are used to make bullets, Kamioka Mining greatly expanded its production of these metals during the World War. This was the main cause why, at the time, there were many occurrences of Itai-itai Disease. Medical study was performed first by Dr. Noboru Hagino who started the private clinic in the middle of the polluted area in 1946. His patients were widely spread, because Cadmium have detected from water beyond the Jinzu River. In 1955 he reported the results of his studies and called the syndrome Itai-itai (ouch-ouch) Disease. The Japanese word "itai" means "ouch" or "painful" in English. Consequently, prolonged exposure to Cadmium due to contaminated water and rice resulted in an excessive accumulation of Cadmium in the body tissues, especially in the kidney. Animal data indicate that Cadmium may affect bone mineralization directly. Bone effects due to low-level environmental Cadmium exposure could be of a great health significance.
Eco-system at Cadmium polluted area, due to spreading wastes and slag contained sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite, have been regularly studied. Continuing removal of heavy metals is required at the system. Accordingly environmental studies on microbial mats are available for a bioremediation. The microbial mats at the stream showed the concentration of Pb, Cd, Fe, Zn and Cu. Microorganisms such as spherical algae and Gallionella ferruginea were recognized to concentrate Fe, Mn and Zn on/in cell wall. Moss (Philonotis forgtana) and Athyrium yokoscens have been concentrated Zn and Cu around roots. Bioremediation includes physical and chemical methods have been the subject of much debate. Electron microscopic research efforts are being directed in recent years. Biomineralization technologies may contribute toward the advancement of environmental bioremediation. Electron microscopic results of bacterial bioremediation will be reported in this paper.
In our living environment the migration of radon from the subsurface into buildings can be considered as the main factor contributing to the indoor radon activity concentrations. Field measurements of radon activity concentration in soil gas are usually carried out for the regional evaluation and prediction of the geogenic radon potential. The values obtained through such spot measurements depend strongly on the geological background but also on the soil properties like grainsize distribution, pore-space watersaturation and also on meteorological conditions.
The goal of this study was to estimate the variability of the radon activity concentration in soil gas and to relate it to the variations of soil properties induced by seasonal changes. For this purpose, a long term (10 months) monitoring of the variation of radon activity concentration in soil gas has been carried out simultaneously to the registration of soil and meteorological parameters. The standardized soil gas probe was installed at 1 m depth in a loamy loess soil, which lies on top of a succession of unconsolidated Tertiary to Quaternary fluvial sands and gravels within the Lower Rhine Basin (Germany). The radon activity concentration in soil gas was measured for the whole period using a radon monitor AlphaGuard (counts integrated over a 10 min time-interval) with a ionization chamber under continuous flow conditions. The test site is located in the vicinity of a well, where the groundwater table is monitored quasi-continuously (sampling period 5 min).
Cross-correlation analyses between meteorological parameters and groundwater table changes on one hand and the radon activity concentration on the other hand were performed using a 1 week moving window. Positive values of the cross-correlation coefficient <rho>t are found in correspondence with periods of lower groundwater table, whereas negative <rho>t values characterize time intervals of higher groundwater table. Moreover, the radon activity concentration seems to decrease considerably after each heavy rainfall. However, we did not find any significant correlation between the radon activity concentration in the soil gas and air pressure.
These results confirm the influence of soil humidity on radon emanation. Rainfall and groundwater table changes are found to be relevant factors in the variation of the geogenic radon potential in soils and should be taken into account for further evaluation of existing data and future measurements.
The Aral basin is facing a huge environmental crisis. The main reasons for this crisis are : an erroneous strategy of development ; mistakes in the strategy of agriculture development (introducing of monocultural practice, excessive expansion of irrigated agriculture, intensive use of agriculture chemicals); and low quality of design, construction and exploitation of irrigated systems (Micklin, 1991) which added to the climate change observed from the last decade. The problems of the Aral sea are not limited to its desiccation, the disappearance of fish from remaining salty water, the death of the fishing industry and so blowing of dust and salt from its dried bed. A number of other problems have developed. These include toxical problems, resulting from the excessive use of fertilisers and chemicals for cotton and other production. To preserve the Aral sea ; to solve health, social, ecological and agronomic problems any solutions should consider the solution for resolve mistakes in agriculture development and unsatisfactory design, builders and exploitation of the irrigation system (Gasseimi & al., 1995, Valet & al, 1998). The climate has grown increasingly continental in the coastal region : the average temperature has increased by 2-3°C, (Grechanichenko, 1998). Annual rainfalls has also changed, dust storms have become worse, salt and dust removal from the bottom of the dried sea has increased (from 15 to 75 million tons per year) as well as their sedimentation of the crop fields. The dangerous pesticide contamination continues along with the mineralisation of the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya rivers. The genetic reserve of the flora and fauna is partly lost. From 1961 to 1991, the level of Aral Sea lowered by 15 m. and the shore-line moved by 60-70 km, exposing the sea bottom over the area of 23 km3 (Seversky, 1998). Salt and dust removed from the dried bottom, therefore, causes an increase in the atmospheric pollution by 5%. Since 1981, salt-dust storms has been observed sometimes up to 90 days per year. To assess this dramatic situation, an international team develop an Information Modelling System (IMS) to analyse the ecological data of this region (Kiselev and al, 1996). This IMS propose short description of ecological situation in Aral region, soil map, Aral sea water balance, meteorological information, city population database, human main sick maps, cadmium level distribution map of the Aral sea sediment. A special focus is done on the soil and hydric misfunctionning. using water balance diagnostic. A brief description of the tool used is done as also the data used. The Aral basin is facing a huge environmental crisis. The main reasons for this crisis are: an erroneous strategy of development; mistakes in the strategy of agriculture development (introducing of monocultural practice, excessive expansion of irrigated agriculture, intensive use of agriculture chemicals); and low quality of design, construction and exploitation of irrigated systems (Micklin, 1991) which added to the climate change observed from the last decade. The problems of the Aral sea are not limited to its desiccation, the disappearance of fish from remaining salty water, the death of the fishing industry and so blowing of dust and salt from its dried bed. A number of other problems have developed. These include toxical problems, resulting from the excessive use of fertilisers and chemicals for cotton and other production. To preserve the Aral sea; to solve health, social, ecological and agronomic problems any solutions should consider the solution for resolve mistakes in agriculture development and unsatisfactory design, builders and exploitation of the irrigation system (Gasseimi & al., 1995, Valet & al, 1998). The climate has grown increasingly continental in the coastal region: the average temperature has increased by 2-3°C, (Grechanichenko, 1998). Annual rainfalls has also changed, dust storms have become worse, salt and dust removal from the bottom of the dried sea has increased (from 15 to 75 million tons per year) as well as their sedimentation of the crop fields. The dangerous pesticide contamination continues along with the mineralisation of the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya rivers. The genetic reserve of the flora and fauna is partly lost. From 1961 to 1991, the level of Aral Sea lowered by 15 m. and the shore-line moved by 60-70 km, exposing the sea bottom over the area of 23 km3 (Seversky, 1998). Salt and dust removed from the dried bottom, therefore, causes an increase in the atmospheric pollution by 5%. Since 1981, salt-dust storms has been observed sometimes up to 90 days per year. To assess this dramatic situation, an international team develop an Information Modelling System (IMS) to analyse the ecological data of this region (Kiselev and al, 1996). This IMS propose short description of ecological situation in Aral region, soil map, Aral sea water balance, meteorological information, city population database, human main sick maps, cadmium level distribution map of the Aral sea sediment. A special focus is done on the soil and hydric misfunctionning. using water balance diagnostic. A brief description of the tool used is done as also the data used.
Micklin MV, Center for Russian and East European Studies, 905, 120, (1991).
Ghassemi F, AJ Jakeman, & HA Nix, Australian National University, ACT 200, 20, (1995).
Valet S, Le Coustumer Ph, V Kuksenko, A Shilov, & V Kiselev, UNESCO - Paris, 2-5 juin, 2, (1998).
Grechanichenko Y, INTAS Mid Term Report, I, 15-17, (1998).
Seversky I, INTAS Mid Term Report, I, 1-14, (1998).
Kiselev V, INTAS Mid Term Report, I, 50, (1998).
The sources of microbes that cause disease in humans are generally another human, an animal or vector, or the soil or water. The breakdown of infections causing death in 1995 (WHO, 1996) by mode of transmission showed that 65% were spread from person to person, 22% originated from food, water, or soil, 13% were transmitted by an arthropod vector, and 0.3% came from animals. The physicochemical environment directly and indirectly influences infectious diseases in humans through impacts on pathogens, vectors, intermediate and reservoir hosts, vegetation, and human behavior and activities. Environmental changes affect all classes of organisms and multiple routes of transmission (Wilson et al, 1994).
Many infections have striking seasonal patterns and wax and wane in response to temperature, rainfall, humidity, and other seasonal changes. For example, in the so-called meningitis belt of Africa, outbreaks of meningococcal meningitis typically occur during the months that are cooler, drier, and dustier. Concurrent respiratory infections and the virulence of circulating clones of Neisseria meningitidis are among other variables that influence the patterns of disease.
Extreme weather events, such as flooding, windstorms, hurricanes, and drought can aid in the dispersal of microbes, can influence survival and abundance of vectors, and can affect the vulnerability of the human population and exposure to infection. Populations displaced by natural events or by human-induced environmental changes often live under conditions of crowding and poor sanitation that favor the spread of infections. Access to medical treatment may be disrupted and nutrition may be inadequate in these temporary shelters (Wilson, 1995).
Roads serve as transportation routes for humans but also allow the movement of vectors and reservoir and intermediate hosts that travel through the changed landscape or hitch a ride with humans to a new home. Natural barriers to movement, such as mountains and deserts, are breached. Roads and other development projects also fragment habitats, change ecosystems, and limit the diversity of species that can survive in some areas. Irrigation projects bring water to crops and allow development of new lands. In some areas dams and irrigation projects have provided an environment ideal for the spread of schistosomiasis, a parasitic infection that requires a snail as part of the development cycle. Without an appropriate snail intermediate host and the disposal of untreated waste containing schistosome eggs into the snail-infested water, the cycle cannot be maintained.
The several examples that will be used will demonstrate many classes of organisms and multiple modes of transmission and the global impact of diverse environmental changes on infectious diseases (McMichael et al, 1996). Population growth, urbanization (especially in low latitude areas), and travel and trade (Wilson, 1995) are other key factors that drive environmental change and influence the patterns of infectious diseases.
WHO, The World Health Report, 1996. WHO: Geneva, 1-111, (1996).
Wilson ME, Levins R, Spielman A, eds, Disease in Evolution: Global Changes and Emergence of Infectious Diseases. New York Academy of Sciences, 740, 1-469, (1994).
Wilson ME, Infectious diseases: an ecological perspective. Brit Med J, 311, 1681-4, (1995).
Wilson ME, Travel and the Emergence of Infectious Diseases. Emerg Infect Dis, 1, 39-46, (1995).
McMichael AJ, Haines A, Slooff R, Kovats S, eds, Climate Change and Human Health, WHO, WHO/EHG/96.7, 1-243, (1996).
As Montaigne said, in 1580, "the most universal quality is diversity" (and diversity is security). Our planet is crowded, and there is no place to hide; vast numbers of species which support us are gone or threatened. We have seen the failure of simplistic solutions (e.g. UNICEF report, 1963, telling us that, because of DDT malaria would be eradicated). All advanced organisms have similar roots in their genetic and biosystems.
Our life support systems include air quality, water quality and quantity, soil quality, climate, materials and energy, and all of them are changing in quality, sustainability. Recently, Rind (1998) argued that mean global temperature may rise 50°C in the 21st Century - a New World!
We require new approaches in the use of all resources and components of the life support systems (e.g. all elements in coal, removing arsenic, fluorine from waters, controlling toxic elements in soil, managing combustion gases).
When one considers most of the great modern environmental problems, the foundation of sustainable development, the Geo sciences are a fundamental component of systems for new technological development. This is well illustrated by urgent problems like nuclear waste management, soil remediation, and various aspects of solar energy.
The problems can be solved, but we must have integrated teams of experts who can communicate with economists and politicians, who normally have a vision not exceeding five years - the next election. What will be the cost of Antarctic ice collapse? In addition, we require new educational programs in our schools at all levels, including our universities. We must return to a focus on natural science and strive for universal literacy, numeracy and sciency. The alternative might be that earth could return to only deep microorganisms?
Rind, 281, (1998)
One of the most important indicator of carcinogenic risk for human health is presence in geosphere of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) group with benz(a)pyrene (BP) as indicator compounds of this group. BP is included in "a list of substances, products, processes, domestic and natural factors to be carcinogenic for man" that was developed by sanitary organisations of Russian Federation. Investigation of PAH content in geospheres (atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil, vegetation, etc.) is directed to forecasting environmental condition and estimating a risk level for human health.
The main source of carcinogenic PAH is hydrocarbon fuels burning in industrial plants, transportation sector, heating systems and so forth. In gas industry PAH are discharged into the atmosphere in a part of emission of fuel-fired equipment which is used during production, processing, transportation and storing of natural gas and hydrocarbon fuel.
The investigations which have been recently conducted by the authors illustrate a distribution of carcinogenic BP in geospheres. Besides these investigations a composition of PAH in effluent gases of fuel-fired equipment, some environment systems and PAH profile that characterize a relationship between concentration of individual components of this group and concentration of indicator compound BP are also given in this paper.
14 PAH from a priority raw with a number of benzene rings from 4 to 7 were indentified both qualitatively and quantitatively. Samples taken from combustion products and soil of gas industry's enterprises light PAH which have no carcinogenic properties are prevailed. Together with BP some other strong carcinogens such as 1,2,5,6-dibenz (a,h) antratsene (DBA), 3,4,8,9- dibenz (a,h) pyrene, 3.4.9.10-dibenz (a.h) pyrene are observed as traces. PAH were found in environment, for example in soil, in a concentration from several mcg/kg for DBA to hundreds of mcg/kg for 1,12-benz (g,h,i) perylene.
The production of process hydrocarbon from natural gas shows that effluent gases and environmental aspects have similar PAH profiles such demonstrating a specific emission source.
A general excess of background concentration PAH (BP) of gas industry's enterprises in somewhat low and is at a level of relatively safety values relative to the other fuel and power sectors.
In the western slope of the South Urals Meso/Neoproterozoic deposits have been taken as the Riphean stratotype section, and that of the Ashian series of the Vendian. In the absence of any reliable paleontological or lithological evidence the author has carried out geochemical research to clarify Precambrian sedimentation conditions. The Riphean stratotype (1650-570 Ma) about 15 km thick is divided into the Burzyanian and Yurmatinian (Lower and Middle Riphean, or Mesoproterozoic), and Karatavian (Upper Riphean, or Neoproterozoic). The Ashian Series is divided into the Lower and Upper Vendian and correlates with the Neoproterozoic. For sand-stones, aleurolites, and clay and carbonate rocks of all stratigraphic divisions of the Riphean-Vendian section the author was the first to find average contents of rock-forming oxides and some trace elements with further calculations of petrochemical moduli: HM = TiO2±Al2O3±Fe2O3±FeO/SiO2, +BBAEHA- = Al2O3/SiO2, +BCIEHA- = TiO2/Al2O3, NM = Na2O/Al2O3, NA = Na2O+-K2O/Al2O3, +BBw-A = Na2O/K2O, +BBoEHA- = K2O/Al2O3, +BBw-O = FeO/Fe2O3, F+BBw- = Fe2O3+-FeO±MnO/TiO2±Al2O3. Clastic rocks making up about 40-45% of the entire section are represented by polymict, oligomict and monomict varieties. Generally polymict sandstones asso-ciate with gritstones and conglomerates and are characteristic for basal horizons of the series. Terrigenous rocks are mostly characterised by low +BCIEHA-, +BBw-A and F+BBw- values, light REE composition, small Ti, V, Cr, Co, Mn and Ni contents, that corresponding to deposits formed at the ex-pense of acid crystalline rocks of the platform foundation and products of their destruction. In the Burzyanian time tectonic environments varied from moderately active (of riftogene or intracratonal type) at the beginning of cycles (series) to "passive" during middle and final periods - the trend that was favourable to completely mature clastic rocks. Both Yurmatinian and Karatavian showed more intricate pattern of variation in chemical characteristics of terrigenous rocks without any marked trend. In the Riphean time paleoclimatic environments changed. Humid envi-ronments are supposed for the Zigalga (Middle Riphean), Lemeza, Inzer and partly Uk (Late Riphean) periods, when chemically high-mature ultraquartz sandstones were formed, and in the Karatavian there are glauconite accumulation levels found in the sections of the Inzer and Uk Suites. Clay rocks (25-30% of the entire section) consist mainly of hydromicas or hydromicas admixed with chlorite (20-25%). As a whole, Riphean clay rocks are of comparatively low chemical maturity - a feature characteristic of arid conditions. For arid environments, with low water/rock ratio under alkaline conditions, potassium turned to inert element in ancient crusts and accumulated within +BBo-feldspars, contrastingly, aluminum oxide and sodium were taken out from weathering crusts. The Riphean section under study is known for two levels of abnormal potassium accumulation. These are Bolshoi Inzer-Ai (Burzyanian) and Zilmerdak (Karatavian), where even average K2O contents are higher than the lower threshold of the abnormal domain - 5%, and +BBoEHA- (K2O/Fe2O3)>0,31. As a whole, the Riphean section is characterised by K contents in constant excess of Na. Geochemical properties of the rocks in the section show that salinity of the sedimentation basin was generally close to normal as evidenced by Sr, Ba, Mg, B contents and ratios of Sr/Ba>1, B/Rb. In the Burzyanian and Yurmatinian there were more examples of the formation of high-magnesia and high-iron carbonate deposits similar to evaporites. Variations of geochemical characteristics along the section are governed by big sedimentary cycles, and an increase in +BBw-A (Na2O/K2O) is observed in every cycle within terrigenous rocks of the basal horizons, where there are also volcanogene formations and products of their destruction. However, variations in petrochemical moduli appear more complicated. In the Burzyanian we see a unidirectional variation of the main moduli (H+BBw-, +BBw-A, +BBAEHA-, N+BBw-). In the Yurmatinian and Bur-zyanian the curve for the moduli variations has a saw-tooth pattern. This may be interpreted by successive washout of a single source of load in the Burzyanian at more intensive processes of chemical weathering and weaker tectonic processes. In the Yurmatinian and Karatavian either additional sources of load appeared in the mid-cycles or climatic conditions changed in the area of supply and sedimentation basin. Alongside with cyclic variations some petrochemical moduli tend to show a directional (evolution) change during the whole Riphean. In carbonate rocks of the section (in the ascending order) the ratio of MgO/CaO reduces. This is most probably due to evolution of the prevailing climatic conditions and composition of the areas of supply. The second explanation is the variation in the degree of epigenetic transformation of carbonate deposits. In terrigenous rocks the value of OM changes from the Burzyanian to Karatavian. In the Burzaynian and Yurmatinian O+BBw- exceeds one as a rule, falling below one since the end of the Yurmatinian and in the Karatavian. It agrees with the formation of black carbon-bearing shales in the section. In the Karatavian red beds are wider developed with almost no carbon-bearing shales. It suggests a redox potential growing during the Riphean and Vendian. However, variations in a number of geochemical characteristics of sedimentary rocks of the section under study appear even more intricate. For example, maximum TM values are characteristic of the most mature well sorted ultraquartz sandstones. Ferruginosity (F+BBw-) in most of the terrigenous rocks of the section meets the norm (0.2-0.5). However, in some sandstones F+BBw- increases up to 0.75, that being explained by the composition of washing material or by glauconite accumulation. Geochemical data obtained by the author allow to state that the sharpest changes in geochemical features of the Riphean stratotype sedimentary rocks occurred in passing from the Middle to Upper Riphean (Meso+AK4-Neoproterozoic). These geochemical investigations help to solve some practical problems too. Several geochemical horizons have been found always rich in one or an-other chemical element (Fe, Mg, Ba, Sr, F). This suggests a number of deposits of iron, barite ores, fluorite, magnesites and rocks rich in strontium in the Riphean section of the Urals and makes it possible to recommend further prospecting.
After the 1st International Symposium on Protection of Geological Heritage, Special Commission of the UNESCO under the chairmanship of Dr. J.W. Cowie has started the coordinative works on making the Preliminary World List of Geological Sites (GILGES). By 1994 this list included six objects in Bashkortostan. Because of its unparalleled natural conditions the Republic of Bashkortostan that occupies the territory of more than 140,000 square kilometers and is situated within the South Ural and Cis-Ural regions plays an important role in Russia. There are three reservations, two national parks and a botanical garden in Bashkortostan alongside with dozens of refuges, and about 150 pieces of nature, of which only 20 are purely geological ones, this number being absolutely inadequate to the unique and diversified geological features of Bashkortostan. In respect with age, the region is characteristic for a wide range of exposed rocks - from ancient Precambrian, i.e. Riphean (Meso/Neoproterozoic) of 1.6 billion years to recent Quaternary rocks, and this is more than one third of the whole geological time of the Earth (!) By lithological composition and origin there are various complexes of sedimentary, metamorphic and magmatic rocks representing a wide spectrum of rock and mineral associations. Tectonically within Bashkortostan there is a contact among the south-eastern margin of the European plate, Cis-Ural foredeep, West-Ural fold zone, Central Ural uplift and Magnitogorsk trough. The com-bination of platform and fold structures is responsible for the presence of different relief forms in Bashkortostan and a whole complex of natural peculiarities, among them botanical features to be protected as well. No wonder that the Preliminary World List of Geological Sites includes the unique natural objects: Riphean stratatotypical (reference) section at the western slope of the South Urals, Middle Carboniferous stratotype of the Bashkirian Stage on the Askyn River, shikhan-type mountains near the town of Sterlitamak as a complex of Carboniferous and Permian sediments rich in marine invertebrate fossils, Yangantau Mountain with thermal phenomena, Kapova Cave (Shulgantash) with Later Paleolithic wall paintings, and vaucluse spring Krasny Klyuch. However, not all of them are considered to be even the pieces of nature. This makes the problem of special investigations most urgent. The author suggests to specify 170 geological pieces of nature, including 114 new ones. All of them are subdivided into stratigraphical, paleontological, mineralogical, ore petrographical, geochemical, cosmogenic, tectonical, geomor-phological, geocryogenic, hydrogeological, geothermal, and historical mining types, and also global, super-regional, regional and local protective conditions and gradation of significance. The new sites specified by the author will allow to radically improve the environmental protective activities in the republic and preserve the most unique geological pieces of nature and whole biogeocenoses.
The aim of this work is to study the influence of watershed management and climatic fluctuations on the suspended solid concentration and mineralogy in a big Mediterranean river during the 19th. From october 1992 to may 1995, the flow and the suspended solids concentration of the Rhône were daily measured near its mouth, including 10 flood periods (return time discharge up to almost 100 years). Our non linear model relates daily solid discharge and mean daily waterflow. It gives a good estimate of the total solid discharge during the studied period which takes place after the completion of all dams within the catchment. In order to test if our model could be used to reestimate solid discharge of the last 30 years, we used another set of 331 instantaneous suspended solid concentration regularly mesured from 1971 to 1991 near Arles by different authors and institutions. Retro-calculations of annual solid discharges during the last 30 years demonstrate the importance of inter-annual variability and the role played by short-term climatic fluctuations: a moderate humid period during the 1960s followed by the dry period of the 1970s, and a new humid period starting in 1977. The last european drought (1989-1991) followed by the recent very humid years are also distinguishable. Data from 1956-58 allowed us to discuss the impacts of dams erection. Our current model underestimate the 1950s solid discharge but no more than 67%. This slight reduction of the Rhône solid transport capacity during the last 40 years could be related with the reduction of the main tributary discharge at the beginning of the 1960s. By elsewhere, we must also consider that the perturbations induced by watershed management could have progressively diminished from the 1950s. It seems that watershed management can induce transport capacity perturbations that are not permanent. At least in the Rhône river catchment, it seems that the river develops efforts to recover its former transport capacity. The causes of the decennial to century scale of variation of the sediment solid transport by the river must be considered both as natural and man-induced.
The ecological - geochemical conditions of Mountain Crimea were analysed in the Bodrak - Kacha River basin (the tributaries of Alma River, Second Range of Mountain Crimea). The Second Range has quest relief with absolute heights of order 500-600 m. Quests are build up by terrigenous and volcanogenous Triassic - Lower Cretaceous and carbonate Upper Cretaceous - Paleogene succession. The watershed area and north gentle slopes of quests are occupied by multiherb steppe grass and shrubbery. The insular forests contain low-wood (5-10 m) types of oak, ash, field maple, elm and hazel. Four inhabit points are located in the region of studies. The number of population varies from 550 to 4500 persons. Subchannel flows of Bodrak and Kacha Rivers are used for water - supply of the villages.An integrated methodics were used for ecological - geochemical evaluation the region. It included sampling and analysing of the most typical rocks of different type, soil profiles, biosubstratums of trees and vegetation. The comparison of the data and the morbidity of children and adult population was made. The morbidity correlates with the composition of drinking water and the composition of rocks in a system "rock - ground - drinking water - plants - a man". Similar regularities were recognised for a system: "rock - ground - plants". The investigation allows to rank the region by ecological - geochemical conditions and to propose specific recommendations for man protection.
Ecosystem health, as a concept through which empirical observations are sought and structured, has proven useful for focussing inter-subjective discussion and dialogue in order to co-determine shared learning and concerted action (Jiggins and Röling, in press).
It has proven less useful in its strong or paradigmatic form. Rather than stimulating learning about the inter-relations among human populations and their environment, it tends to provoke questions to which answers are largely known or determined by the boundaries of the paradigm description. The contrast is illustrated by reference to interactive valuation, participatory land mapping and resource assessment, and the development and use of sustainability indicators. Instances are presented and examined from Eastern Bushmanland, Namibia, various European countries, and Queensland, Australia (Jiggins and Röling in press, Powell 1999).The discussion relates these reference experiences to the management of non-equilibirum systems, over-determined problem situations, and the concept of resilience. Conclusions are drawn that point to a need for greater ethical awareness in relation to problem definition, boundary setting, and method selection in ecosystem management.
Jiggins J, Röling N, International Journal of Environment and Pollution, accepted nov 98, special issue on valuing natural systems, (1999).
Powell N, Acta Universitatis Agriculturae Sueciae, Agraria 138, 1-230, (1999).
Index of EUG 10 Volume
Further EUG 10 Information
Index of the Journal of Conference Abstracts
Cambridge Publications Home Page
Last Updated on Wednesday, March 17, 1999.
© 1997 Cambridge Publications